Challenges of Teaching English to Young Learners
Today, as never before, the world has become a global village where everyone is interconnected through various forms of media and high-speed travel. As a result, the need for a universal language is more important today than in the past. English has been chosen as that language; consequently, the need for ESL and EFL teachers has grown by leaps and bounds, and with it, new teaching methods, theories, and technologies. With the onset of this phenomenon, the need for teaching English to young learners has become of the highest importance to ensure native-like proficiency. Teaching young learners is a challenge, but when those learners are EFL or ESL learners, the challenges are even greater.
Indeed, the challenges to teaching second language learners are many, such as:
· Providing an atmosphere that is risk-free, non-threatening, and conducive to learning.
· Providing a well-rounded learning experience that taps into each learner's most dominant learning style.
· Addressing issues specific to young learners, such as attention span and pace of learning.
To be able to reduce those challenges, specific areas of need should be addressed. Those areas are important to setting the stage for optimum learning to occur; they include the "critical period" for learning, the lowering of the "affective filter," the building of a community of learners, and learning styles.
The Theoretical Perspective
To ensure the success of an EFL program, certain measures should be taken to guarantee that students will be learning at their optimum ability. Thus, the work of renowned theorists needs to be examined to gain a balanced perspective and knowledge that can be applied to a language learning program that will produce the most effective outcomes.
Noam Chomsky, a leading expert in the field of Linguistics, put forward this hypothesis: “That there's a particular period in the life of humans when they're ripe for learning languages (PBS).”
“Chomsky declared that we acquire language not just because we are taught it but because we are born with the principles of language. They're in our genes. We have language, Chomsky said, because of nature, not just nurture (PBS).”
Though Chomsky had no way to test his hypothesis, he needed subjects to study, but none were available until the discovery of Genie. Genie was raised locked in a room and had little or no contact with humans and very little stimulation. Genie was punished for making noise. As a result, Genie never learned to talk. She walked on all fours and acted like an animal. When she was found, Genie was fourteen years old, past the “critical period” for language learning, according to Chomsky. Even with all of the experts trying to teach her, Genie only learned a minimal amount of language, a baby talk of sorts (Yule, Pp. 171-172). When the study ended and Genie became older, she was institutionalized because she was too hard to handle. The point that we must notice from Genie's experience is that because she had already surpassed the critical period, i.e., puberty, she was unable to learn language.
The second case that Chomsky studied was of a six-year-old girl named Isabelle, who was locked in an attic room with her deaf-mute mother. In this case, Isabelle was not exposed to language because of her mother’s handicap. Within two years of the start of Isabelle’s rehabilitation, she had reached the intellectual level that is normal for her age (Henslin, Pp. 65). Based once again on Chomsky's hypothesis, Isabelle learned to talk because she had not reached that “critical period.”
Without a doubt, Chomsky proved his hypothesis. There is a critical period for language learning, and thus, the importance of learning a second or subsequent language before the critical period has passed is of the highest importance to produce the best results.
Another factor that has a strong impact on language learning and learning in general is the theory of "Affective Filter." Stephen Krashen’s theory of “Affective Filter” theorized that for students to learn effectively, there must be the existence of a stress-free environment where learning can occur naturally (Yule, p. 192).
Additionally, Krashen theorized that for a learner to acquire knowledge at an effective rate, certain conditions and characteristics must present, such as motivation, self-confidence, and lack of anxiety. If these conditions are not present, then the barrier to learning is lifted, preventing the learner from acquiring knowledge. Thus, the Affective Filter is raised or lowered with stressful and/or uncertain situations (Yule, p 192).
Another highly important theory, especially in the cultural context, is that of community building. In a case study that explored distance learning provided at the Arab Open University located in the country of Jordan, the theory that lack of community contributed to the failure of students was researched and found to be valid (Dirani & Yoon, 2009). Thus, this study found that instructors need to take special care to ensure that a strong learning community is established (Dirani & Yoon, 2009). While this study does not address young learners, it can be theorized that if lack of community is detrimental to the learning of university students, how much more so it must be for young learners.
Having discussed these important theories now, the question arises, "How can these theories be applied to the classroom?"
Addressing the Critical Period
Having established the theory of critical period is important it must be asserted that there is a specific need for children to be taught a second language at a very young age if native-like proficiency is to be attained. No longer should children wait until they enter junior high and high school before being exposed to a second language. The learning of a second language should begin from the cradle if possible, but if not, at least when children enter the classroom. With young age come other challenges, which will be discussed a little further in this chapter.
The Lowering of the Affective Filter
The lowering of the Affective filter is important to providing a relaxed atmosphere where learners can acquire knowledge in a stress-free, safe environment. Krashen compares the Affective Filter to a barrier that can be raised or lowered. Once the barrier has been lowered and stress and anxiety removed, children will feel free to experiment with learning without the fear of making mistakes (Yule, p. 192). As stated previously, Krashen theorized that for students to learn effectively, there must be the existence of a stress-free environment where learning can occur naturally (Yule, p. 192). In 2000, a study was conducted at the University of Taiwan, which proved Krashen’s theory of Affective Filter to be not only sound but the primary contributing factor to the success or failure of learning. Before the year 2000, most university English students in Taiwan were taught using the teacher-centered method. The author of the study sought to find a more effective teaching method and thus decided to test Krashen’s theories of the Natural Approach and Psychological Method, which are based on his theory of Affective Filter. The study’s focal point is “the connection between students' interest, self-esteem, attitude, motivation, and the use of various student-centered communicative activities designed to enhance confidence and language acquisition” (Lin, 2008).
Lin’s study involved the use of games, films, and songs to teach English; additionally, music was played to create a relaxing setting. A quantitative survey was given to the students involved before and after the study, and the results were graphed. These results, when compared, showed a significant improvement in attitude toward the teaching methodologies that were used. Furthermore, student TOEFL scores were compared and showed a considerable improvement. Thus, the results of this study support Krashen’s findings. Moreover, the methods used to lower the Affective Filter are appropriate across all age levels, especially for very young learners.
In addition to the above-mentioned methods, what other ways can teachers provide a safe and stress-free environment for young learners and thus lower the Affective Filter? One of the easiest things that a teacher can do to enhance learning and lower the Affective Filter is to provide a warm and friendly environment where students feel that their teacher cares about their performance and is there to help them. This situation cannot be attained in a classroom where yelling, slamming, bullying, and disrespect are occurring; this not only applies to student behavior but also to the teacher. The teacher needs to show that she cares and is interested in the welfare of the students. The teacher can provide this kind of atmosphere by speaking to each child as an individual, such as beginning each day by welcoming each student as they arrive at class. The role of the teacher is that of parent, teacher, friend, motivator, coordinator, organizer" (Vale & Feuteun, p.27).
Additionally, a teacher needs to guard against being too critical. It is not unreasonable to expect a language learner to take many years to learn a language. If a teacher becomes too demanding, students can become discouraged or fearful, resulting in poor performance or a complete shutdown of language production. A teacher needs to set priorities, identify objectives, and stick to them. By focusing on one problem at a time, providing fun, task-based activities, and by providing a non-critical environment, the Affective filter will be lowered, and the children will gain confidence in their abilities.
Another way that a teacher can lower the Affective Filter is by arranging the classroom in a more friendly and effective manner. For example, the classroom can be arranged so that students are grouped into teams. By establishing groups and teams, a sense of belonging occurs, and students become more confident and relaxed as part of a team of learners. Additionally, the inclusion of learning zones such as reading corners, role play areas, writing lab, computer center, etc…can make learning more fun and enjoyable. Don’t we all learn better when we like what and how we are learning?
Another thing that a teacher can do to lower the Affective filter is to display the work of the students on the wall of the classroom. That does not mean that only the best student's work is displayed, but the best work of every student. Displays should be bright, decorative, and creative.
Building a Community of Learners
Building a community of learners is an effective way to not only lower the Affective Filter but also promote learning through knowledge transfer. The best and most effective way to build community is through the formation of collaborative groups. This method was created by Carl Rodger. In Rodger's theory of collaborative groups, each member, along with the teacher, inspires and praises each other's attempts and progress. By promoting such a safe environment, the Affective filter is lowered, and anxiety is reduced through the support of the group. Also, the role of the teacher becomes that of the participant and facilitator and is no longer perceived as threatening (Brown, Pp. 112-114).
Learning communities or groups can be formed in many different ways as long as they are formed in a way in which each student has an active role to play and responsibilities to carry out, such as group leader, timekeeper, scribe, materials person, etc.… By doing so, each person in the group is as important as another, and learning cannot occur without the participation and involvement of every member.
Addressing Learning Styles
Another factor that affects the success of learning is that of learning styles. Howard Gardner developed a theory that suggests that every person is born with a distinct style of learning. Through research, Gardner was able to identify several different styles of learning, they are:
· Linguistic
· Logical-Mathematical
· Musical: the ability to perceive and create pitch and rhythmic patterns
· Spatial: the ability to find one's way around an environment, to form mental images of reality, and to transform them readily)
· Bodily-Kinesthetic: fine motor movement, athletic prowess
· Naturalist: sensitivity to natural objects (plants, animals, clouds)
· Interpersonal: the ability to understand others, how they feel, what motivates them, and how to interact with one another)
· Intrapersonal: the ability to see oneself to develop a sense of self-identity.
(Brown, p. 108)
· Auditory
Taking into account that we all have different styles of learning then, we must take this fact into account when lesson planning. This, of course, doesn’t mean that we have to create separate activities for each child or group of learners; rather, we need to incorporate a wide variety of activities that address as many learning styles as possible. The following is an example of a beginning-level phonics lesson plan that incorporates several learning styles:
Lesson Plan – The Letter B
Objective: By the end of this lesson, learners will be able to identify the letter "B," produce its sound, identify words that begin with the "B" sound, and write both capital and lower case letter "B."
Materials:
· Large, colorful, picture flash card with the letter B on it and pictures of words that begin with the "B" sound.
· Lined paper with area for drawing
· Pencils
· Color crayons
· White board
· White board markers
Steps:
1. The teacher holds up the flash card, points to the letter, and asks the learners what letter this is on the card. If the learners know the letter, the teacher can then praise the students and reinforce the knowledge - (this step addresses spatial, auditory, and linguistic learners).
2. The teacher then asks the learners if they know what the pictures are on the card. The teacher, with the help of the learners, makes up a story about the pictures. The teacher reinforces correct answers through praise and gently corrects wrong answers - (this step addresses spatial, auditory, and linguistic learners).
3. The teacher then asks learners if they know what sound the letter "B" makes. The teacher reinforces correct answers through praise. Then, she models the song and action to go with the letter. The teacher picks a simple tune such as "Row, Row, Row your boat" to sing the letter sound, i.e., b,b,b, bb…. The teacher can also ask the students to provide an action that can be performed with the song. The action can be as simple as clapping. They sing the song and perform the action together. The teacher monitors for participation – (This step addresses spatial, auditory, musical, kinesthetic, and linguistic learners).
4. The teacher can then have the learners hold their fingers in the air and trace the letter "B" in the air. Sound effects can be added, such as an airplane sound or buzzing - (This step addresses spatial, auditory, kinesthetic, and linguistic learners).
5. The teacher then models the writing of the letter "B,b" on the whiteboard for the learners. The teacher needs to use one color marker for the different lines and another for the letter. The teacher needs to pay special attention to explaining where and on which line the writing starts and stops. The teacher can also add sound effects while writing - (This step addresses spatial, auditory, kinesthetic, and linguistic learners).
6. The teacher then instructs the learners to practice writing the letter "B, b" while singing the "B" sound song. The teacher monitors to assess understanding, participation, and level of accuracy - (This step addresses intrapersonal, spatial, auditory, musical, kinesthetic, and linguistic learners).
7. The teacher then instructs the learners to draw a picture of something that begins with the letter "B." The teacher monitors to assess understanding, participation, and level of accuracy - (This step addresses intrapersonal, spatial, kinesthetic, and linguistic learners).
As you can see, the above lesson addresses most of the learning styles, thus making learning the letter "B" sound easy for all learners.
The Pace of Learning: An Important Consideration
One area that seems to be ignored by many teachers is that of learning pace. Teachers and educators of every level need to remember what their objective is; is it to cover a certain amount of material in a textbook, or is it meeting the object, i.e., learning? In the best interest of every learner, we as experienced educators need to be flexible in our lesson planning so that the needs of slower students are met as well as those of the more proficient, i.e., faster students. This can be done by including more difficult materials or extra activities for the faster, more proficient and removing materials that are repetitious, redundant, or unnecessary for the slower. Furthermore, more advanced learners can be given independent work, which can free up time for the teacher to spend with learners who need extra attention.
Attention Span and the Need for Physical Activity
How many times have we heard from other teachers, "I just can't get little Bobbie to sit still and focus on his work? New teachers are faced with this dilemma every day. Teachers need to consider the nature of small children; they have a short attention span and are always in motion.
Teachers who are having difficulty getting their students to sit still and focus need to ask themselves if their expectations are too high. Are they expecting their students to sit still and focus on a task that is too long, too advanced, and/or involved?
To overcome this problem, teachers need to supply their learners with a wide variety of tasks, some of which get them up and out of their seats at regular intervals. Additionally, teachers can also break up lessons into reasonable blocks of time by alternating work with recess, music, stretching, or even just singing a silly song that has motions.
In this paper, several issues regarding language learning for young learners have been discussed. These issues include the appropriate age for learning, the reduction of stress and anxiety, the need to address a wide range of learning styles, and expectations regarding the pace of learning and the need for physical activity. By careful consideration of what has been shown through the research of Chomsky and Krashen and prudent lesson planning, teaching the very young can become a joyful experience rather than a challenge.
References
Brown, H. Douglas. (2007). Principle of Language Learning and Teaching. 5th ed. Pearson Longman: USA. 108 -114
Dirani, K., & Yoon, S. (2009). Exploring Open Distance Learning at a Jordanian University: A Case Study. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10(2), Retrieved on February 5, 2010 from ERIC database.
Henslin, James M. Sociology, A Down-to-Earth Approach. Boston: Pearson, Allyn, and Bacon, 2007. 65.
Lin, G. (2008). Pedagogies Proving Krashen's Theory of Affective Filter. Online Submission, Retrieved from ERIC database.
PBS. (1997). “Secret of the Wild Child.” Nova. PBS Online. Retrieved from:http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2112gchild.html - 56k
Saeed, N., Yun, Y., & Sinnappan, S. (2009). Emerging Web Technologies in Higher Education: A Case of Incorporating Blogs, Podcasts, and Social Bookmarks in a Web Programming Course Based on Students' Learning Styles and Technology Preferences. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 98-109. Retrieved on February 5, 2010, from Academic Search Premier Database.
Vale, David, Feuteun, Anne. (2009). Teaching Children English. Cambridge Teacher Training and Development. Cambridge University Press: UK. 27.
Yule, George. (1996). The Study of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press: UK. 171,172, 192.